Okinawa

The battle of Okinawa was the last major battle of WW2 and was particularly costly for both the Japanese and Americans. During this time, the war at Europe was coming to a close. The Nazis were pushed back in Berlin with their unconditional surrender only weeks away. Meanwhile, the Americans still continued the brutal campaign of island hopping and was closing in on the Japanese homeland. Okinawa would serve as a base for operation Downfall, the invasion of the Japanese homeland and the Japanese fought desperately to defend it.

More than 125,000 Japanese soldiers were stationed at Okinawa along with another 20,000 conscripts from the island itself. Meanwhile the main US navy task force descended on the island conducting the largest bombardment to ever support a troop landing. The troop landings were expected to be particularly bloody, but when the troops were sent in, there was almost no resistance at all. They quickly secured two vital airstrips and kept pushing inland without having seen the enemy who had been entrenching themselves further inland, waiting for the Americans.

The battle of Okinawa also was the end for the super battleship Yamato. It was sent to the island in a near suicide order to disrupt the landings and then beach itself and use its massive 18 inch guns as artillery weapons. But on the way there, it was spotted by American submarines and sunk. The massive warship took 11 torpedoes and 5 bombs before it slipped beneath the waves demonstrating the size and armor of the warship.

Meanwhile, the Americans had finally found the enemy who had already created the Suri defense line, a series of well defended hills which slowed the Americans down to a halt. But the most dangerous part of the battle was the kamikaze attacks that the Japanese launched on the Americans. These attacks sunk 36 ships and were terrifying to behold.

On the other side of the island was Hacksaw ridge. The Japanese there had created a system of tunnels and bunkers making the advance incredibly difficult. This ridge was the main focus of the movie, promptly named Hacksaw ridge, where Corporal Desmond Doss, a medic saved dozens of lives behind enemy lines earning him the medal of Honor. When the main force of the Americans retreated, he chose to stay to save more lives even as the Japanese were advancing.

As the battle came to a close many of the Japanese soldiers and civilians chose suicide over surrender. Of the 300,000 civilians once living on the island, almost half of them died while only 7,000 of  the 125,000 strong army garrison surrendered. Knowing he had lost, the Japanese general in charge of the defense of the island committed ritualistic suicide as well. The battle was won but at a huge cost for both sides. The japanese lost over 100,000 soldiers and 150,000 civilians while the Americans suffered over 12,000 casualties. Some historians argue that the brutality and cost of this battle convinced the Americans to use the atomic bomb to end the war quickly instead of a costly invasion of the Japanese homeland.

https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/battle-of-okinawa

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Okinawa

Operation Catapult

July 3, 1940: Winston Churchill faces a momentous decision. He sends British naval forces to the port of Mers-el-Kabir, where French ships are stationed. He commands the British forces to demand the surrender of the French vessels, with the threat of sinking them as a worst-case scenario.
The British were supposed to offer the French 4 different alternatives so as not to let their ships fall into Nazi hands, which was of utmost importance to their success in the war.
Churchill desperately wanted to avoid an Anglo-French battle and worked with the British War Cabinet to find a diplomatic solution to their problem. Their hope that there would be a legitimate assurance from the French that their ships would be kept from the Germans was extinguished, pushing Britain to cross the line they so didn't want to. Their negotiations with the French resulted in failure, leaving Churchill to resort to the use of force to prevent the ships from falling into Nazi hands.
Churchill weighed both options- attacking the French ships would incur the wrath of all of France, but letting them fall into German control would put the British at risk, considering the ships would fall into "Axis possession". This left Churchill with one option only; force the surrender of the ships, even at the cost of having to sink them.
The naval power of France was extreme, with seven battleships, 19 cruisers, 71 destroyers, as well as 76 submarines. After France was invaded, many of its ships sailed to foreign harbors, which is why such a powerful naval force was stationed at Mers-el-Kabir, which is what led it to have such a powerful importance. Marcel Gensoul commanded the French ships at Mers-el-Kabir. Gensoul was loyal to Jean Francois Darlan, as well as to the Vichy government (which was like a "puppet" government under German control". Marcel's beliefs led the British to believe that finding a compromise with him would be extremely difficult.
On the 27th of June, 4 options to give Gensoul were proposed. The first was to have the fleet join the Royal Navy, another was to transport the fleet (with smaller crews) to British ports, to take the fleet to a U.S. port, or, if all the previous options were declined, to sink the ships then and there.
Sir James Somerville was tasked with Operation Catapult, given Force H to aid him in his objective. He was briefed on the 29th of June, and arrived at Mers-el-Kebir on July 3rd at 5:30 am.
However, Gensoul refused to meet with Captain Holland, who had been instructed to explain the British terms to him. Instead, he sent Lieutenant Antoine Dufay to conference with Holland.
Holland gave Dufay the written British demands to give to Gensoul, but the demands merely angered Gensoul. At 9:45 am, he signaled the French Admiralty that a British force had come to Mers-el-Kabir, and had given him an ultimatum to sink his ships within six hours. Gensoul also stated that he intended to fight fire with fire, meaning that he would attack the British.

When it became obvious to the British that the French intended on leaving the Harbor, Holland ordered to have the harbor entrance sealed with mines to prevent their escape. At 5:30, Force H opened fire on the French, sinking numerous ships and killing over 1,000 men. The British gave a short reprieve to the French in order to allow them to abandon ship to prevent further loss of life, but the French used it to prepare to leave. The French were fired upon once more, and they surrendered shortly thereafter.
The attack on Mers-el-Kabir led the Vichy government to give up all diplomatic ties to London, but the materials and ships recovered by the British more than made up for the loss of their puppet ally.

442nd Infantry Regiment

    The 442nd is a very decorated regiment which was made up of only Japanese Americans. It was specified that it would primarily target the people in internment camps and sometimes if people tried to evade the draft they would be imprisoned. Also, they were to see who their loyalty was sided with. Eventually, they got around 14,000 Japanese to make up the regiment. For training, the infantry division would train at Camp Shelby at Mississipi. Some of them were Military Intelligence Service to work as translators/interpreters.  They fought in eight major campaigns in the European country since they were refused to fight in the Pacific Theatre. One of their major sacrifices was when the friendly battalion was a mile in enemy lines ten the division came in and sacrificed 100s of men to save that Battalion. The unit was also the most decorated units as they received 9,000 purple hearts, 4,000 bronze stars, and 21 Medal of Honors. This made them respected and praised by Truman.  Even with this Heroism they still couldn't change the old stereotypes that the Americans had against the Japanese.

Weirdest Supreme Court Cases

In class, a while ago we were talking about a lot of Supreme Court cases during that time. The cases we talked about were more informative then weird, so while listening (of course) I was wondering if there were any cases that were notable for just weird and maybe even funny. This post is in some way informative, but also could make you laugh, so enjoy!

1. United States V. Ninety-Five Barrels, More or Less, Alleged Apple Cider Vinegar

The title is the main reason I put this first one down, but this case is pretty bizarre as well.  This case was during the Prohibition error. During that time, food companies were often involved in SHADY activities, like misbranding. In this case, the U.S. government sued the Douglas Packing Company because they used dried apples rehydrated with water to make apple cider vinegar, instead of using traditional fresh apples. I understand the government is trying to protect our health, but I don’t understand why this case was BIG enough to go to the SUPREME COURT. Disclaimer: it isn’t because this issue wasn’t important, but is it really that problematic that it has to go to the supreme court.

1. Birthday Song Case

This series of trails began in the mid-1900s when the happy birthday song (yes, the one you sing to people on their birthdays) was officially patented. This required anyone who used this song to owe the patentors a certain sum of money. A series of restaurants in 1980 were sued for using the song without permission. Restaurants now have their own patents on these songs! This case is pretty self-explanatory, I just thought it was weird that restaurants were getting sued or being forced to pay money for singing happy birthday to their guest?

1. Buck v. Bell

This case we actually briefly talked about in class. This case is not only weird, but it is also despicable. Generally, in the 1900s, John and Alice Dobbs sent their foster daughter Carrie Buck to an insane asylum on the grounds of promiscuity and feeble mindless? This girl had been sexually assaulted by the Dobb’s nephew, and they thought that commuter her would avoid the EMBARRASSMENT that would come to their family name. (Way to put your self-interests before others dude!). Unfortunately, it just got worst for Carrie… This is because at Indiana it was a common practice for the “feeble-minded” to be sterilized. Since Buck’s mom was originally institutionalized, the line of argument was easier and they could p\blame it on some hereditary disorder.

1. Nix v. Hedden

Have you ever wondered where decisions about whether a tomato is a fruit or vegetable came about? Well now, if you are reading this, you’ll find out. in Hedden, the Court ruled on a New York state statute that was taxing tomatoes as vegetables. The Nix family imported large numbers of tomatoes, so they sued to try to lessen their tax burden. The court was forced to rule on whether the tomato was a fruit or vegetable. In case you didn't know, the court ruled that it was a vegetable? But some may disagree (like me), Tomatoes have seeds so shouldn’t it be a fruit?

1. United States v. Approximately 64,695 pounds of Shark Fins 

Just read the name. I’m starting to see that the weird names seem to be involved with the United States government. It seems to be United States vs. (insert weird name here). Anyways, this case resulted from statutes meant to clamp down on shark hunting. Sharks are more commonly taken for their dorsal fin, and the rest of the meat is left to spoil in the ocean. I mean 64,695 is a lot of pounds. The fact that one defendant could be responsible for this many shark fins, is kind of weird and incredible.

That is all I have for now! Hope you enjoyed!

How Freedom Led to Violence

When a country gains independence, important things must be considered. One of these things is the transition of power.

When America was fighting for its freedom, it knew exactly how it wanted to govern itself. It knew exactly what its borders would look like, since the original 13 colonies didn't border any country at the time. After Independence, America smoothly took the form of a democracy comprising of 13 states.

Other countries weren't so fortunate, such as India. Gandhi is largely credited as a founding father of modern-day India. His legacy of being one of the first to use non-violence to protest is known worldwide. He was an important freedom fighter and an inspiration to many. But he failed in his final goal, and never lived to see the "United India" that he dreamed of. After India gained independence, it was partitioned into 2 (now 3 countries): India, and East/West Pakistan. The name Pakistan translates to "Land of the Pure" It's founder Jinnah Ali envisioned it as a Muslim utopia where people could practice freely without the persecution of Hindus, the majority religion of India. In essence, it was the perfect ethnostate.




This transition wasn't smooth at all. As Hindus and Sikhs in present-day Pakistan migrated to India, and Muslims in present-day India migrated to Pakistan, violence erupted. Muslims who wanted to stay where they lived for generations didn't want their villages, towns, and cities to be completely overrun by Hindus, and vice versa. Communities that had coexisted for centuries turned into animals: murder, rape, and forced conversions were rampant. It is estimated that over 100,000 women were abducted, and deaths ranged from 200,000 to 2 million. 14 million people were displaced.

The Partition was clearly hastily done and rushed, as the British wanted to leave India as soon as possible after the war. Without careful planning, two lines were drawn on a map that defined where what kind of people could live where. There was a lot that had to be sorted out. Monarchies surrounded by India get annexed, while others choose to remain independent. Modern states are carved out based on language: every state in India speaks one unique to itself. East Pakistan will eventually declare independence and become a separate country called Bangladesh.

This phenomena isn't just unique to India. If the transfer from one government to another isn't carefully thought out, it can lead to disastrous consequences. In fact, almost every country in the world has struggled with deciding who should run their country, how they should run their country, and what kind of people get to live in their country, at one point int their history. Though people unite on one thing, they can disagree on others. But sometimes conflict is inevitable: you simply can't predict the future.

Sources:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T_sGTspaF4Y

Decolonization after World War 2

For thousands of years, the Empire had been the most popular and conventional form of governance. Emperors had the control of vast areas of land that contained many different ethnic groups who spoke different languages. Countries were in a constant fight for land, resources, which created massive amounts of wealth. However, that all came to an end after the end of World War 2. In the years that followed, former colonies of empires were broken up into self - governing nations, and the map of the world started resembling what it looks like today.

Some of these former countries became ethnostates. Put simply, an ethnostate is a country who borders are defined, and is ruled by a single ethnic group. Japan is a good example of a country that became an ethnostate after World War 2, when it lost all its colonies in 1945. For the first time in 50 years, Japan's borders were comprised of solely Japanese people.

However, many European Powers, such as Britain still held on to their colonies, now just shadows of their once vast land area and populations. Many people around the world wanted self-determination. In the coming 2 decades, borders around the world changed drastically.


Ironically, totalitarian fascism played a role make these currently democratic, self governing countries a reality.  Though the Axis lost the war, Japan and Germany fought hard, costing countries such as Britain millions of lives, and billions of dollars. Unable to pay the costs governing such a large territory, Britain had to let go over a sizable portion of its empire. And the fact that these were independence movements in many of these countries was an added bonus. Britain didn't have the money and resources to contain all of them, so they just  It made it look as if Britain was acknowledging their requests for independence, and peacefully transferring their power to their former colonies.


Independence of India, 1947


Malaysia Constitutional Conference in London, 1956

Independence of Jordan, 1950

However, if Britain and France had not been devastated after the war, they would have most definitely tried to crush the rebellion in all of their colonies. Who knows how long their imperialism would continue? Would some rebellions get violent?

Though World War 2 had just occurred, people were still fighting; fighting for the right to self-determination. Even in America, the civil rights movement started taking place around this same period of time, as Blacks demanded an end to segregation and Jim Crow laws. It was truly a turning point in history.

Sources:
http://what-when-how.com/western-colonialism/malaysia-british-1874-1957-western-colonialism/
http://theconversation.com/how-the-partition-of-india-happened-and-why-its-effects-are-still-felt-today-81766

The imitation Game

          Alan Mathison Turning was many things such as a mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist. He was never fully recognized for having introduced to us theoretical computer science and artificial-intelligence because of his homosexuality which was a crime in the UK at the time. He also played a crucial role in the breaking of intercepted codes from the Germans which helped win crucial battles against the Nazis. When the war was over he went over to work at the National Physical Laboratory where he designed ACE one of the first computer programs. He went on to work at the Computing Machine Laboratory in the Victoria University of Manchester where he created the Manchester computers.
        Even with all of these amazing and never before done accomplishments, Alan was still prosecuted in 1952 for homosexual acts. Instead of jail, he choose chemical castration treatment which would reduce sexual activity. Turning died from cyanide poisoning, it was considered as suicide but the evidence proved otherwise. It could have possibly been accidental poisoning. 
          Turning was playing an imitation game where he accepted the fact that people had to see him another way than what he really was. He was close to marrying Joan Clarke who he worked with at the cryptography team. He wasn't able to go through the wedding revealing to her that he was gay. They still remained friendly and worked together to break the Herman Machine also referred to as the Egima. His success with creating a machine that would break a code every day was seen as the main reason of the British victory. 
        He was able to save a lot of lives but no one ever knew the truth behind that because it was all kept a secret. He was later prosecuted by the same government and the same people that he had worked with and helped. The movie "The Imitation Game" was meant to tell his story. 



The Imitation Game

Dr. Seuss goes to Fort Fox

       In class, we looked at cartoons and propaganda that ensured that all Americans were invested in the war effort and absorbing the right attitude towards the war effort and the enemies. Nowhere was better at coming up with these, particularly the short films, than Fort Fox. Fort Fox was where people in entertainment and media went to help the war effort. One example of one of these people is Theodore Geisel, or Dr. Seuss.
       Theodore Geisel, shifted his attention from children's stories to political cartoons after hearing on the news that Paris had fallen to the Nazis. Many of his cartoons were aimed at Adolf Hitler and isolationists. In the period between 1941 and 1941, he made over 400 cartoons for a newspaper called PM that was leaning heavily towards the U.S. getting involved in the war. He drew cartoons of Lindbergh making him out to be in league with Hitler and trying to depict him as not a good example of American ideals (as when he replaced the American Eagle with a Lindbergh ostrich).
        After hearing the news about Pearl Harbor, he drew a bird labeled isolationism being blown up. Now that war on Japan had been declared, Geisel began incorporating some of the racial stereotypes discussed in class today into his political drawings. He gave Japanese leaders with bucked teeth and impossibly narrow eyes and he in one cartoon, he even went as far as to imply that Japanese-Americans were waiting for "the signal from home" to blow the U.S. up themselves.
         Initially, the U.S. had only asked him to make cartoons to encourage people to contribute to the war effort by buying bonds and by conserving their resources. However, Geisel decided he wanted to do even more for the war effort. He decided that he would enlist in the U.S. Army and he was soon deployed to Fox Studios in Hollywood (Fort Fox). He worked with the top media people of the time in journalism, film, screenwriting, and animators, including Frank Capra. Some work Geisel did includes making the training manuals more interesting with creative characters and working on animation and short film projects directed towards helping the war effort and informing the men of what not to do in the Army and what their goals and missions were in the individual parts of the war. After his 3 year stint in the army, Geisel returned to civilian life and went back to publishing kids books.

Brutal Japan, Loving Japan

World War II is characterized by the brutality of the German genocide and the mounting casualties in the war against Japan over the Pacific. During the war, America has made many decisions that would be seen today as a huge violation of human rights. This includes the maltreatment of its own Japanese citizens and brutality against Japanese POWs. Some say that the Japanese were the most brutal to its enemies due to their strict honor code - the Bushido, and the harsh treatment each soldier received from his superiors. However, the Japanese are still humans. Few Japanese soldiers survived to see their nation reformed into a democratic society. How did these war veterans who experienced the clash of two opposing sociopolitical ideas perceive their own actions? What do these veterans reveal about the morality of Imperial Japanese troops?

The most iconic example of a Japanese soldier transitioning from the old Imperial Japan to the new democracy is Hiroo Onoda. Onoda was an Imperial Japanese Army intelligence officer who did not surrender in August 1945. He held out in the Philippines for 29 years after the end of the war, refusing the believe that Japan had lost. It was not until he met his former commander in 1974 that he finally surrendered. Surprisingly, he took advantage of his popularity to release an autobiography upon returning to Japan. In his interviews, he claimed to be troubled by the withering of traditional Japanese values. Nonetheless, he seemed to integrate seamlessly with the new democratic order. This demonstrates that Imperial Japanese soldiers during World War II did not commit brutal deeds due to their violent nature. Instead, they felt honored to be soldiers, much like Americans do, and believed that they should throw away their lives valiantly for the sake of their family and their country. When Onoda surrendered in 1974, he carried a knife with him that was given to him by his mother. His mother gave him the knife to kill himself if he was to be captured. This demonstrates how the Japanese did not see life as insignificant, but rather saw death as inconsequential. These are two completely different concepts, and the latter proves how humane and united the Japanese people really were during the war.

In terms of Imperial Japanese military officers, many would characterize them as brutal and unsympathetic to their soldiers. However, this was completely untrue. The relationship between a commander and his subordinates was stronger within the Japanese military than any other military in the world. The harsh treatment was seen as a norm by both parties, and the same disciplinary belief can be seen to some degree within the Japanese Self-Defense Forces today. In fact, Onoda's commander made a promise with him and the other soldiers that "whatever happens, we'll come back for you." There is no brutality within the hearts of Japanese men. The brutal actions of World War II Imperial Japanese soldiers were ironically a result of their love for their motherland and the strong bond they have with their kinsmen.

Hamilton and Jefferson

As technology becomes more and more integrated with our society, it is only normal to analyze its effects from a political standpoint. Technology is not a single identity, but rather a network of devices automating the fundamental frameworks of modern industry. The development of technology can therefore be seen as an iterative process which promotes both modern industrialization and advances in engineering. This rapid development is often criticized by those who remain cynical of cybersecurity. Others point out that the rise of "tech giants" are oppressing smaller industries, creating a rigid social hierarchy of companies and engineers. Nevertheless, engineers are people who specialize in optimizing mechanisms, resulting in a rapid and continuous evolution of this industrial framework. Reforms are happening faster than a second between lines of compiled code, and systems reconstructed by a single keystroke. Where are we headed? To a liberal but stagnant Jeffersonian society? Or to a meritocratic but almost oligarchical Hamiltonian society?

Technology is a tenacious tide of never-ending progress. It would only be natural to assume that it diverges from the Jeffersonian ideal of a stable democratic* system. Is the answer to our essential question Alexander Hamilton, by this logic? Well, further investigation of a corrupted millennial paradise suggests otherwise. Certainly, technology is evolving at an exponential rate, but the industry actively contributes to the community. For instance, VMWare, a software company that distributes virtualization software, is actively involved in promoting environmentalism. Just recently, their headquarters have accomplished an amazing feat of zero net carbon. For a company that requires energy-intensive data centers, huge efforts must have been put in to make this possible. Business integration in the community, demonstrated by the example of VMWare, abides by Jefferson's philosophy of a more socialist* and morally united United States. This progression suggests that the future of America, or at least the future of its technological sector, would be a compromise between the two opposing philosophies, with some incline towards Hamilton's capitalistic society due to the nature of large enterprises.

Battle of Leyte Gulf

The Battle of Leyte Gulf

The Battle of Leyte gulf was the largest naval battle of World War II and a decisive turning point that crippled Japanese forces, allowed US invasion of the Philippines, and reinforced the Allies’ hold of the Pacific. The battle took place from October 23-25, 1944.

The naval battle was precipitated by an invasion of the island of Leyte, which was attacked by US forces on October 20th. Led by Lt. General Walter Krueger, Allied forces managed to gain beachheads against around 270,000 Japanese army and air forces.

The first stage of the Battle of Leyte Gulf was at the Palawan Passage. Early in the morning on October 23rd, American forces located Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita’s Center Force, the first Japanese encounter in the battle. Two US submarines, the USS Darter (SS-227) and USS Dace (SS-247) ambushed the fleet with undetected torpedoes, managing to sink the Admiral’s flagship and severely damaging two other cruisers. Kurita was later rescued by sailors and put back into command of his fleet later in the day.

The second stage of the battle was the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea. On the morning of October 24th, Japanese forces were spotted in the Sibuyan Sea by US planes. Two hundred planes from the USS Intrepid attack in waves, using bombs and torpedoes and successfully attacking and damaging multiple ships. However, as the US forces attacked Kurita’s fleet, 80 Japanese planes were sent to attack 4 US ships. The Japanese to kill 200 sailors on the Princeton and 80 on the Birmingham, sinking one ship and putting the other into early retirement.

Finally, on October 25, the three major engagements of the Battle were fought, almost simultaneously. At the Surigao Strait, battleships and cruisers from the Seventh Fleet destroyed C Force and forced the Second Attack Force to withdraw with only one of its total 7 ships intact. Meanwhile, Admiral Kurita passed through San Bernardino Strait at 3 a.m. and progressed southward along the coast of Samar. Three groups of the Seventh Fleet, each with six escort carriers, eight destroyers and destroyer escorts, would ultimately be responsible for stopping Kurita. The Americans defeated the Japanese, with 2 destroyers sunk and 4 more damaged. This battle was also the first time organized Kamikaze planes were used. They bombed the escort carriers that had just fought in the Battle of Samar, and the tactic showed the Japanese’s continued devotion to fighting until death, and was a tactic that the Japanese would resort to until the end of the war.

Leyte Gulf was decisive in that it destroyed most of the remaining parts of Japan’s fleet and basically ended Japan’s ability to move resources from islands to Southeast Asia. These resources included oil from the Philippines, and the loss of oil greatly crippled Japan’s ability to fight. In the battle, Japan lost 4 aircraft carriers, three battleships, six heavy and four light cruisers, and eleven destroyers, along with several hundred aircraft and over 10,500 sailors, far more than the losses the Allies had suffered. Admiral Yonai, the Navy Minister, said he realised the defeat at Leyte 'was tantamount to the loss of the Philippines. I felt that it was the end.'

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf

https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/battle-of-leyte-gulf

https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Leyte-Gulf

https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1757.html

https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1952-05/battle-leyte-gulf

Frog Men in the Pacific War

         In class when we were discussing the invasion of Tarawa, I found it very interesting when Mr. Stewart said that from this failure at planning on the poor tides and, more importantly, the underground reef that ran the boats aground a quarter of a mile from the land, lead to the navy adopting the forebearers of the navy seals, the frog men (or Underwater Demolition Team -UDT).
         The U.S. military's next target was Kwajalein, and this time, the U.S. was not going in without reconnaissance. In fact, they were so concerned by the idea of a Tarawa repeat that the Admiral, Admiral Turner, ordered the frog men to break the night time reconnaissance protocol to do two daylight reconnaissance missions. On these missions, their protocol was to go in two man teams on rubber boats in full army dress including the boots and metal helmet. However, when one team found their boat too far from the shore to be certain of the conditions, the two men stripped down to their swim trunks beneath their uniforms and swam 45 minutes, undetected across the reef. They came back with sketches of gun emplacements as well as other pieces of vital information. This success made Kwajalein a turning point for the frog men because it made the U.S. forces see sense in changing their focus to be on individual swimmers. The UDT made a training and experimental base in Kihei to develop strong swimmers, daylight reconnaissance skills, and training without lifelines. Another important change was their attire. Instead of military gear, they were now outfitted with swim trunks, diving masks, fins, and a Ka-bar knife.
        Other missions the frog men went on after Kwajalein include Peleliu, the Philipenes, Guam, and Iwo Jima. They also did reconnaissance on the defenses of Saipan and Tinian. However, their largest operation was on Okinawa where there were nearly 1000 frogmen, which was riskier because it was in more northern waters meaning a hypothermia risk. In this invasion, the UDTs did work on reconnaissance, demolition of where the ships were going to land, and even feinting at where the attacks would be coming from. Throughout just this war, the frogmen's role had transformed to incorporate a broad range of unconventional things that proved critical to modern warfare. I find it interesting that, without the frogmen, there may have been a lot more Tarawa incidents in the Pacific War.


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Team

Japanese Internment Camps

After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, fear that Japanese Americans were now the enemy sent the U.S. into chaos. Many feared that cases of espionage and sabotage would start happening, so President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, to prevent these acts from ever occurring. The military then began to create military zones in California, Oregon, and Washington, all places on the West Coast with a large Japanese population. The fear that the Japanese were dangerous even spread to Canada and Mexico. Both countries sent many Japanese to America to have them placed in internment camps. After nearly 117,000 Japanese Americans reported to their military zones on the West Coast, they were to be sent to an internment camp.

All of the Japanese Internment camps that were created were placed farther inland in states such as Wyoming, Utah, and Arizona. There was fear that if the Japanese remained on the West Coast, they would be a threat to the citizens. Thus, many Japanese were torn away from their homes and businesses and forced to live in a completely new environment. The Internment camps were situated in remote areas far away from towns or cities. Many camps had few rooms, and demanded that the Japanese sleep in horse stalls or cow sheds. Due to the intention of placing the Japanese in a camp quickly, proper housing was not established.

Even in Hawaii, the Japanese faced similar treatment. The Honouliuli internment camp was set up not far away from Pearl Harbor. Even though the Japanese made up a very large population of Hawaii, there was discrimination and many Japanese were sent away. This was done on a much smaller scale however. Church leaders, business owners, and students from Japan were often the target. Many others were spared just so the workforce wouldn’t crumble.

Initially, when creating the idea of Internment Camps, it was proposed that those of Italian or German descent also be placed into those camps. This idea was rejected because they didn’t want to target Americans of European descent. However, it was easier for the military leaders to agree that Japanese were a threat and should be removed.

Despite the cooperation that the Japanese gave towards the military when it came to giving up everything, there was some resistance. One Japanese American argued that the internment camps weren’t constitutional. In Endo v. the United States, it was ruled that the War Relocation Authority “has no authority to subject citizens who are concededly loyal to its leave procedure.” However, this ruling was not widespread. It only applied to Mitsuye Endo, but she declined, wanting to wait until all Japanese Americans could be free.

After nearly 3 years of living in closed communities, President Roosevelt finally began to close the internment camps. The final Japanese Internment camp closed in March 1946. Despite the struggles they faced from the U.S. government, the Japanese weren’t given much to restart their lives. Once the Japanese returned to their communities, they discovered most of their property was taken, and that their communities weren’t very friendly towards them. The government didn’t apologize initially. However, in 1976, President Ford said that the internment was a setback to fundamental American principles. Later, in 1988, each serving interned Japanese American received $20,0000 as an apology from the government. Even though the Japanese struggled immensely due to the government, it’s good to see that they received some compensation, even if it can’t fix all the pain that they went through from the internment.


Sources:https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/japanese-american-relocation
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2015/03/16/393284680/in-hawaii-a-wwii-internment-camp-named-national-monument
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/injustice-japanese-americans-internment-camps-resonates-strongly-180961422/
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/08/09/210138278/japanese-internment-redress

The Berlin Airlift.

After the Fall of Germany, the Continent of Europe was divided amongst the victors of the war. The Allied powers reinstated democratic governments in the areas that the Allied powers controlled. Meanwhile, the Eastern Bloc instated communist governments in Poland and much of the Balkans. German, however, was split between America, France, the UK, and the Soviet Union. Berlin itself deep inside the Soviet Sector was itself divided between the 4 powers. The east gradually became the German Democratic Republic or East Germany and the west became the Federal Republic of Germany or West Germany.
West Berlin gradually formed from the Allied powers Sectors that were merged. West Berlin became a Democratic Island separated from the rest of West Germany by about 100 miles of communism. The only way supplies could reach this democratic stronghold was by a few narrow passageways of rail, road, canal, and air.
After the war ended the relations between the two ideological blocs quickly deteriorated. Stalin wanted to capture the entirety of Berlin in an effort to project his own power and to capture a valuable strategic and economically important location. In order to do so, the Soviets planned to starve the allies out of Berlin by cutting of Road, Rail, and Canal access to the city in order to advance the banner of communism. The US now following a new policy of containment towards communism under the Truman doctrine, wanted to stop communism at any cost. They feared a domino effect where if one country fell to communism the revolution would spread to country after country after country.
The Soviets began their blockade of the city on 24 June 1948 cutting off all land and water access to the city. At first, their plan seemed to be working the allies were running on a dangerously low amount of supplies, and it looked as if they would soon be starved out of the city. However, the Soviets did not count on the Air supply of the city.
The Allied powers devised a daring plan to supply the city with food, medicine, and other living necessities. The Allies would fly massive C-47 skytrains into Tempelhof airport from the Rhein am Main airport from "mainland" West Germany. Pilots would fly 3 8 hour shifts and deliver a supply drop once every 3 minutes at its most efficient. The blockade lasted until 12 May 1949 when the Soviets realized that the Allies could now supply the city continuously and allowed rail, road, and canal access once again. It was a success for the west and symbolized the allies ability to hold strong against communism expanding their projection of power.
 zone of control in Occupied GermanyTempelhof airport with C-47 skytrains ready to unload
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Blockade#Start_of_the_Berlin_Airlift

The German Perspective: End of WWII

 On May 9th the War was over in Europe. American and Soviets forces cheered and the world sighed in relief as all Nazi forces had surrendered their position. we know of the jubilation of the allies, but what of the Germans? How did the people who were enthralled  by Hitler feel or believe about the collapse of the German Reich?


Civillians

This Varied wildly, many civillians did fully believe the doctrine proclaimed while other did not but where forced to follow it. This is why there is not single answer for the civillian population. For a great many a sense of depression and dread filled them. According to sources at the time a great many where shocked at how the germans went from ruling Europe to bein occupied and divided by the Allies. To these groupd the war was a great tragedy and they looked to the future as bleak, Other however were more optimistic. Many of those who saw the fighting were relived that the terrible war had ended. Even more interesting these sentiment would become Geographically orientated. Obviously with time it would heal but Eastern Germany who was occupied by soviets had a massive sentiment of Nastalgia towards Hitler and the reich. This was mostly due to the way the soviets treated them. While in the west that sentiment faded away much faster. The american and other allied ofrces began a mass rebuilding campaing and restructured their goverment but largely allowed them to heal, of course while making sure to stamp out Nazi sentiment when possible.

The Military

The average foot soldier was like the civllians a mixed bag of beliefs at the end of the war. According to Wikipedia and History.com their was a distinct difference. Almost all soldier where in some way relived that the fighting had stopped. Of course they had lost but they no longer had to bleed in fields. The Military High command is a much different story. Some Generals truly never believed n Hitler was doing but followed along, those Generals seemed to view the end as almost a form of Karma, a way to repent for their sins. The other side is those who truly believed in Hitler and wished that before the end they could have done more. The ladder would see their end in Nuremberg where they would pay for the sins with a rope around their neck.

USS Johnston and Earnest Evans

     During the battle of Leyte Gulf, one act of heroism surpasses all. After Halsey's Third Fleet was lured away from the entrance of the San Bernardino Strait to chase the last carriers in the Japanese fleet, a large task force of Japanese streamed straight through threatening the entire operation.
     The force, comprised of 6 heavy cruisers, 2 light cruisers, 11 destroyers, and 4 battleships including the Yamato was a formidable foe. The Yamato itself was the largest battleship ever built and boasting the largest guns ever built and thick armor. Even when it sank, it took 11 torpedoes and 6 bombs to stop this enormous warship. All that stood in their way was a small task force of 6 escort carriers, 3 destroyers, and 3 destroyer escorts. The escort carriers themselves were never meant for battle and were considered sitting ducks while the destroyers' 5 inch guns could do relatively little to the much larger cruisers and battleships. The American force was doomed even from the beginning.
     Despite this, as soon as Taffy 3 (the six carrier escorts) came under attack, the destroyers dived in to give cover for the vulnerable and slow ships. Hopefully, the escort carriers would be able to escape the pursuing force. But setting smoke, the commander of the USS Johnston, Earnest Evans, who would be awarded the medal of honor posthumously, ordered his destroyer to head for the enemy force. A single destroyer heading straight at the enemy force. He zigzagged and fired his 5 inch guns scoring over 45 hits on the heavy cruiser Kumano. When he finally got in range, he unleashed all ten of his torpedoes blowing the bow off of the Kumano and forcing other ships to turn away. Even though he was bracketed by fire from all sides, he continued to fire at the enemy ships inspiring other destroyers, planes, and ships to do the same. More than 400 planes launched from Taffy 1, 2, and 3 buzzed over the enemy ships dropping bombs, torpedoes, rockets, and anything they could get their hands on. Even when they ran out of ammunition then committed to making dry runs.
     Eventually, the ship's steering was knocked out and they lost power to all 5 inch guns. Luckily, a small rain squall gave them the chance to recover and repair. As soon as his guns were repaired, he steamed right back into battle even though his speed was cut in half. He continued to land hits for hours forcing ships to believe that he was actually a cruiser. All around him he was surrounded yet continued on. The bridge was utterly destroyed and Commander Evans was forced to give orders orally by shouting down an open hatch. He was already injured during the destruction of the bridge yet continued to relay orders and push his men forward into battle. Finally, the Japanese were able to knock out his engines leaving the USS Johnston dead in the water. Instead of pursuing the escort carriers, the Japanese circled the crippled destroyer pouring rounds into its hull. Within 5 minutes, Commander Evans was forced to abandon ship. While men say that they watched him jump into the water, Evans was never seen again. As the survivors gathered in their lifeboats, a Japanese ship was rumored to have passed with its captain saluting her for her brave actions.
     In the end, the overwhelming Japanese force lost 3 heavy cruisers while another three were seriously damaged. Meanwhile, the American force lost 2 escort carriers, two destroyers, and over 1500 dead. The USS Johnston was not the only ship to sacrifice themselves in the battle, the USS Hoel and Samual B. Roberts also were destroyed while protecting the escort carriers. The defense of the Americans was so ferocious that the Japanese believed that they were actually engaging the entire 3rd Fleet and all its carriers causing them to withdraw from the battle in defeat. The actions of Earnest Johnston earned him the Medal of Honor and his entire crew a Presidential Unit citation.
https://owlcation.com/humanities/World-War-2-History-Destroyer-USS-Johnston-Attacks-Battleships-and-Cruisers
https://www.warhistoryonline.com/world-war-ii/uss-johnston-kamikazecaptain.html
http://destroyerhistory.org/fletcherclass/ussjohnston/